Australia's Pacific Mindset: Historical Foundations

Early in the 2022 Australian election campaign, an address to Lowy Institute Sydney, then-Prime Minister Scott Morrison went out of his way characterise Australia's regional neighbourhood as a geo-strategic theatre brimming with threats from foreign power. He identified China, which had joined Russia declaring “no-limits” partnership shortly before Ukraine invasion two weeks previously, key threat peaceful status quo region. highlighted Beijing's expanding militarisation, along “espionage, disinformation, cyber-attacks, interference, and economic coercion.” said that China was becoming more assertive “in ways are causing concern nations across region” underlined future “inextricably linked” those Pacific Island countries (PICs) north east.1 The is not usually focus Australia — region generally attracts only limited media coverage. But coalition government's decision play national security card, trumpeting its “Pacific step-up” program,2 combined subsequent revelation Solomon Islands secretly finalised agreement on coalition's watch, ensure became battleground struggle win government. Labor opposition bought into prevailing narrative, seizing Government's discomfort over events Islands. Shadow Foreign Penny Wong told “on Morrison's our has become less secure.”3 continued speak about challenges arising China's “intense” approaches PICs, warning early April “these still remain.”4 brought forward substantial new set policies mid-campaign, positioning it well for intense, positive diplomatic engagement post-election period, led by government.5 unusual domestic political mainstream unfamiliar territory. With some exceptions, intensive reporting ensued outlets much accompanying commentary public figures reflected little detailed knowledge itself. often made sound like nothing than vacant expanse full risk, where locked dangerous contest West, chief representative region.6 Little attention given people themselves they face, their priorities, aspirations. All this seemed confirm sense interest aroused when other major powers threatening move “backyard” use habitual, neo-colonialist term redeployed regularly during campaign. In words, strategic denial overwhelming motivation or instinct underlying both approach mindset concerned. built strong among islanders Government, rest international community, been taking seriously own aspirations overriding preoccupations, particularly concerns climate change,7 described leaders 2018 Forum (PIF) declaration “the single greatest livelihoods, well-being peoples Pacific.”8 It might be argued natural campaign almost exclusively “geo-strategic contest” playing region, partisan broader global context time. were naturally most interested competing credentials sides, we will explore later, there also legitimate reasons Pacific, many shared leaders. And undoubtedly active posture Russia's Ukraine, picture important story interest. narrative reflects entrenched cultural view politicians administrators participate, public. There longstanding historical foundations depiction place threat, rather collaboration opportunity, near-exclusive denying space power believe represent interests values. A review record confirms these anxious elements integral Australians' thinking world post-federation years. fact, present very beginning colonial project, strengthened further through nineteenth century colonies' isolation repeated experienced at least perceived manifesting Indeed, shall see, played role stimulating drive towards nationhood. Denying others can motivations behind establish New South Wales colony first place. earliest proponents project would provide base attack Spanish commerce ocean contribute defeat America.9 Shaw, Blainey, have contended included desire deny French occupation what Australia.10 requesting formal East India company colony's establishment 1786, British Home Secretary Lord Sydney noted Botany Bay within company's area trading monopoly “be means preventing emigration Our European Neighbours Quarter, attended infinite prejudice affairs.”11 understood charged imperial masters authority Pacific. Governor Arthur Philip's appointment him “Governor Chief” eastern half continent, but islands adjacent Ocean latitudes aforesaid 10°37′ South, 43°39′ South,” vast radiating coastline between Cape York southern tip Tasmania.12 Here lay seeds attitude “ownership” conducted expeditions Norfolk under years, Zealand effectively de facto extension decades century. More after arrival one successors, Lachlan Macquarie, referenced terms original asserting legal far-flung Tahiti, he appointed magistrate help maintain law order.13 several saw colonies respond anxiety series threats, real perceived, France Britain competitors exploration settlement late eighteenth century, numerous discoveries claimed period. La Perouse ships January 1788, just Philip moving fleet harbour, pattern activity. established eve revolution, prolonged war against Emperor Bonaparte came preoccupation authorities 1800s, finding feet. Concerns drove expansion explorers encountered Thus, secure any locations station France, King dispatched expedition settle Van Diemen's Land 1803.14 activity severely curtailed years leaving field open British. period reaffirmed mind Britain's traditional enemy, suspicions lingered. Even 1826, rumours plans Western own.15 This dissipate moved 1840s onwards possessions protectorates Tahiti Caledonia, Hebrides, Wallis, Futuna. ogre […] scarcely removed stage history Russian bear began throw lengthening shadow stretched succeeding Kuriles Khyber Pass; Kamchatka even shores Port Phillip.16 “Great Game” south central Asia, stoked fears India; Moscow consolidated grip Siberia based service territory “Russian America” (now Alaska), territorial designs ocean. visiting 1807, 1830s, naval visits increased frequency, alarm expressed press. intensified 1854 1856 enemy outbreak Crimean war, development stimulated significant defence colonies. passage nearby waters squadron reorganisation forces Australia, including military headquarters Melbourne construction defensive batteries around harbour.17 originally seen opportunity planners settlement, danger crystallised 1850s, discovery gold thousands Chinese workers Australia. Their work ethic social habits alien eyes, leading well-documented racist backlash. represented “demographic threat.”18 state current thinkers thought way. spent dictating position following successive humiliations Opium Wars. Colonial fear real, really invading armies blockading navies; teeming millions escaping poverty swarming down unchecked under-populated As progressed, “Yellow Peril” fuse interpretations Darwinism, build White bulwark superior civilisation. exposure grow latter assumed responsibility withdrawal regular troops 1870. These focused range including, once again, French. From 1860s onwards, officials newspapers penal Caledonia. objections framed escapees loomed large mind, risk noted, however, reaction initiative revealed recent history. Transportation finally end 1868, commencing version scheme. Jill Donohoo argues convincingly scheme should part larger post-colonial convict shame.19 progressed activities settlers Hebrides (modern-day Vanuatu) Melanesian chain, hoped turn potential Asia.20 independent external outlook last quarter views increasingly differed perspective London, found itself needing balance support shifting dynamics Europe. government dealing rebalancing relations great powers. entering phase amidst emergence united, militarily Germany, German emanated Hanseatic centre Hamburg. Companies develop plantation Samoa spreading Guinea 1870s.21 all involved ventures. pre-dated formation Germany unified 1871. decade unification, leadership firmly opposed colonialism. Like counterparts Berlin Europe itself.22 growth nonetheless perception growing “natural” dominance concentrated. Queensland called intermittently annex unclaimed portion island (eastward boundary Dutch claim essentially now Papua Guinea). Gold near Moresby prompted heightened intervention, occasional clashes owners “blackbirding” labour recruiters did help.23 Mutual antagonisms mounted, traders concerned demands annexation calling action. An article press November 1882 caused supporters “duty,” ventured “perhaps might, quite same right, affirm duty nation.”24 formed Premier Thomas McIlwraith, proponent take matters hands February year, unilaterally despatching police Thursday behalf empire. Henry Chester required local inhabitants bemused missionaries 4 1883.25 unable approve proceedings your matter. officers no act beyond limits colony.26 Derby comment “special difficulty” arose “some persons Queensland” obtain “a supply coloured sugar plantations.”27 clear believed overblown, costs associated Guinea's unjustified. London wish encourage, expansionism, alliance continental Anglo-French warming time strain 1883 Egypt previous year. Further acquisition dominion Equator, Power, highly detrimental safety well­being Australasia, injurious Empire.29 convention's “Resolutions relating Pacific” equal dispositions France. delegates call immediate steps “secure incorporation Empire so Guinea, small thereto, Government Netherlands.”30 While acknowledging understanding remain independent, convention definite engagement, falling dominion.”31 participants' minds, adopted draft bill Federal Council Australasian Colonies, convinced enact Australasia Act 1885. join council, step idea circulating form another since 1840s, milestone road federation. Resentment failure back McIlwraith's appeased 1884 forced protectorate northeastern southeast. (Bismarck changed colonialism response considerations.) ultimately agreed four later proceed respective protectorates, dividing them.32 Developments strengthen come challenge supremacy scare 1885 because skirmish Afghan Central Asia crisis India. Fearing battlefield case Anglo-Russian broke out, decided occupy Komundo off Korean peninsula, referred Hamilton, improve foothold region.33 upgrade posture. strength permanent part-time soldiers grew 8000 men nearly 22,000 event famous despatch contingent Sudan March intervention there.34 Interestingly, contribution such Parkes, then Wales, basis Australians blindly operations shown influence determination policy. subject discussion First Conference held 1887. renewed Egypt, worries governments Britain, auxiliary waters. capabilities task undertaken Major General Bevan Edwards 1889. judged that, without unification upgrade, vulnerable attack. pointed directly situation making point. During visit discussions Sir re-elected premier federation personal legacy.35 Parkes clearly benefit Edwards' report cause. drew Tenterfield speech December 1899 argue enable militias unite army command government.36 federalist cause gathered momentum, federal conference year successful referenda decade, federated 1901. strictly sense, Asian impinged consciousness Japan's militarisation peaked 1890s.37 Industrial modernisation begun reforms Meiji Restoration 1868. Japanese conscript 1880s, multi-year 1882. mid-1890s Japan inflicted humiliating Sino-Japanese establishing Manchuria, coastline. proceeded launch Taiwan. while debating constitutional principles underpin union, abundantly shifted substantially latter's favour. Hoskins makes persuasive point “if created fissure bedrock interest, race second.”38 mindful need counter expansionism East, responded pragmatically rise force Anglo-Japanese Treaty Commerce Navigation, effect 1899, reciprocal rights entry principle clashed emergent Policy view, himself, “sacred obligation” prevent “admixture blood” gain expression Immigration Restriction 1901, infamous dictation test getting London's exclusion skin colour which, things, breached treaty commitments Japan.39 commercial formalised 1902 until World War. mother country align “Asian threat” source considerable consternation Press parliamentary debate post-Federation manage considerations. Several characteristics today's then, arguments favour greater sovereignty jostled belief best preserved describe today twentieth though, bonds characterised unapologetic, racial terms. extremely important, may time, directed spaces, rival footing, are, if anything, disposed hold.41 Many debates parliaments devoted question whether how transferred administration. Fiji Islands, Prime Barton volunteered parliament “steps taken acquire placing Commonwealth control time.”42 Ultimately, declined offer transfer group, content retain direct Fiji. Papua, clearest-cut case. readily enough accepted mainland. reluctance, actual financial administration Papua. Quibbling proposed extent states' funding State Colonies recall pointedly urging.43 enthusiastic, twenty earlier, access accept administrative burden management. strategical exceptional harbour facilities, renders imperative, commerce, pass power.44 Today, commentators express grave projection note navy capable projecting serious supported bases Vanuatu, formerly commonly having suitable assessed being indebtedness Beijing. Referring commonplace 2022, senior former Fijian Bainimarama angrily rejected terminology betraying patronising ownership. was, course, apology era. calls exclusive zone concept sometimes “an Monroe Doctrine” US policy, espoused 1823, American hemisphere. That seas considered hostility Commonwealth, none ever utilized stations settlements.45 If Oceania ground protest, alarm. We cannot dog-in-the-manger keeping ourselves.46 Asiatic presence different Against proposed, reason energies.47 her is, next door, Mother Country streets away, connected long lines communication.48 John Curtin's seminal “Look speech, thirty fall Singapore forces, regarded moment signalled intention dependence seek preserve alignment United States. remembered 1908, yet entirely “clear present,” Deakin invited conduct high-profile ports send signal militarised powerful friends. consulted London. granted negotiate treaties request involvement forei